COMPETENCE ONE – INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA
The word Interaction refers to the process by which people come in contact with one another and influence each other.
In pre-colonial Africa, interaction was a state in which people from one community got into contact with another community and affected each other. For example, in West Africa, between the 8th–16th C. AD, communities from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans-Sahara trade. This led to the introduction of Islamic religion, growth of states to the people of the Sudanic belt, intermarriage, and development of new technology.
In East Africa, the Swahili coastal city-states such as Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar flourished due to trade with Arabs, Persian, and Indian merchants, which led to the development of unique Afro-Arab culture and language.
Interactions were major links and contacts which were established by the Africans since the Late Stone Age and Iron Age up to the middle of the 19th century when Africa was not yet colonized by the Europeans.
FACTORS FOR EARLY INTERACTIONS IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
A. Social Factors
i. Migration
East Africa belongs to four main language groups, namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the Nilotes, and the Bantu.
These early large groups interacted with the larger Cushites, Bantu, and Nilotes communities that began settling in East Africa from the first century A.D. Through interaction of one community practiced medicine interacted with another led to some changes such as introduction of iron in East Africa.
ii. Religion
It played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously and affected every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa.
These included burial rites, purifications, rituals, naming ceremonies, and prayers to bless soldiers before they went to war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level, and community level.
For example, the Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt as they believed that God was the source of all food.
Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden Stool. Asantehene was regarded as the chief priest.
Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and legendary heroes, e.g. the Juju practiced in Western Africa. The Shona held a cult called Mwari.
iii. Wars
African communities engaged in war from time to time. They fought for various reasons such as to increase the number of herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agricultural purposes, and expansion of the kingdom.
For example, Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe, and Busoga to expand their kingdom by 1839.
The Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora, the area located around Southern Khartoum, and by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi region in the modern-day Uganda.
iv. Music and Dances
African music and dances brought people together. Communities' rites and ceremonies were accompanied by songs and dances.
Every African society developed songs for work. Labourers sang while clearing fields, sowing, and harvesting goods.
Examples of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba of Makonde.
The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music whereby other songs praised or condemned certain characteristics, including leadership and relation with neighbours.
Dances were also performed for different purposes. Some dances were open to everyone while others were restricted to a certain secret society, professionals, and artisans.
For example, Chagga men and women performed a dance called Rring during wedding ceremonies, and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.
v. Medicine
Africans had medicine men and women who played important roles both spiritually and medically.
Those who practiced medicine interacted with many members of the society as patients visited some of the well-known medicine men and women.
Some medicine men and women were also political advisors and leaders, for example, Kinjekitile Ngwale of Southern Tanganyika.
Most of the medicines were extracted from plant roots, barks, and leaves, e.g. the neem tree (Mwarobaini) was mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.
vi. Marriage
Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every member of the society jugs to build their own family.
In Buganda, the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in the kingdom. Therefore, social interactions strengthened through marriage.
At the same time, marriage led to the emergence of new culture, for example, Swahili culture as the result of a mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.
B. ECONOMIC FACTORS
African communities also interacted due to economic factors such as:
i. Metal Working
African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensils, and ornaments.
Some of the widely used metals were iron, bronze, gold, copper, and tin.
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of early iron working beneath important religious shrines in the Great Lakes region dating back over 2,000 years ago.
Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper.
Benin, the Bronze casters, had a guild called Igun Eronwon. Through making various metal tools, people interacted through the need for the commodities.
ii. Agriculture
Many African communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the process.
Apart from a few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land, other communities cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods. Tools and crops were passed from one community to another.
The Kwavi, who were purely pastoral community, eventually became cultivators as the result of their interaction with agricultural societies.
iii. Fishing
Fishing was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and the seas.
The Luo were and still are named fishermen in pre-colonial East Africa. The Ndengereko fished in the River Rufiji, while the Zaramo and other coastal people fished in the Indian Ocean.
Such fishing communities interacted with pastoralists and agriculturalists so as to acquire animal products and agricultural commodities.
iv. Trade
Trade conducted in the pre-colonial period was in a barter system. The trade network was based on the need to access what a community did not produce.
For example, pastoralists exchanged their animal products for vegetables and grains.
The Limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupations such as iron working and pottery.
Between the 8th–16th C. AD, communities from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans-Sahara trade.
Among the most important commodities of exchange were iron, gold, slaves, and salt.
v. The Need to Search for New Areas
Areas with fertile land and reliable rainfall were very attractive to the people within the regions or those coming from outside the regions.
Agricultural societies kept on shifting from areas with infertile soil to areas with fertile soil.
Examples in the Interlacustrine regions were densely populated compared to areas like Central Tanzania and the Northern part of Kenya where population was low.
INTERACTION IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS
Before colonialism, the Indian Ocean islands such as Zanzibar, Madagascar, the Comoros, and the Seychelles were integral to a large trade and cultural exchange network that linked together Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
PHASES OF THE INTERACTION ON THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS
The history of this early interaction between the people from Indian Ocean islands and those from the Middle and Far East can be divided into two phases.
The First Phase
The first phase was the Ancient Period, between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE.
This phase involved early contacts among the Austronesian sailors, Chinese, Arabs, and Indian traders.
The Second Phase
The second phase was the Medieval Period, between the 8th and 15th centuries CE.
This period was characterized by the expansion of Islamic influence and the rise of Swahili city-states as trading centres.
The Third Phase
The third phase was the Early Modern Period, between the 15th century and early 19th century CE, with increased trade under local sultanates and early European explorations, starting with the Portuguese, Arabs, the French, and English.
Each phase saw evolving interaction patterns shaped by economic demands, technological advancements, and shifting political dynamics.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE INTERACTIONS ON THE INDIAN OCEAN
Several conditions facilitated the interactions on the Indian Ocean islands, including:
1. Geographical Position and Maritime Trade
The strategic location of the islands such as Zanzibar and Madagascar made them serve as crucial stopping points for traders travelling between the East African coast, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia.
2. Presence of Monsoon Winds
The seasonal monsoon winds played an important role in determining trade routes, thus enabling the making of consistent and predictable voyages.
3. Religious Factor
Cultural and religious connections influenced the pre-colonial interactions on the Indian Ocean islands.
The spread of Islam and indigenous beliefs and practices created a unique culture across the islands.
Arab traders from Oman and Yemen played a central role in spreading Islam, which became famous in Zanzibar and the Comoros by the 12th century.
4. The Rise of Political Alliances and Conflicts
This led to the emergence of interactions on the Indian Ocean islands.
For example, local rulers formed alliances with foreign merchants to strengthen their economies and political power.
5. Settlement
By the 9th century, Arab traders had established permanent settlements in Zanzibar and the Comoros.
They intermarried with the local Bantu-speaking people, thus giving rise to Swahili culture, which combines African, Arab, and Persian influences.
The construction of stone mosques and Swahili writing are key indicators of this cultural combination.
6. Trade
Trade was the main factor in the pre-colonial interactions.
The Indian Ocean islands were rich in resources. For example, Madagascar supplied timber, iron, and slaves to Arab and Indian traders.
Likewise, Zanzibar and the Comoros were known for cloves, ivory, and spices.
INTERACTIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Before colonization, Southern Africa was a region of dynamic socio-economic and political interactions. These interactions shaped the development of various communities and fostered trade, migration, warfare and cultural exchanges.
A good example of pre-colonial interaction in Southern Africa is the Ngoni migration, which involved Nguni speakers moving from Southern Africa to Central and East Africa in the 19th century.
FACTORS FOR EARLY INTERACTION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
1. Migration
During the early period (1000–1500 CE), migration influenced interactions in Southern Africa. The Bantu migrations into Southern Africa shaped the region's population, economic activities and culture.
For instance, the Bantu introduced ironworking, agriculture and new political structures, thereby facilitating their interaction with the indigenous San and Khoikhoi groups.
2. Trade
It was another significant factor in the early interactions in Southern Africa. The Indian Ocean trade network brought goods such as beads, cloth and ceramics into the interior of Southern Africa.
The Swahili city-states on the East African coast, such as Kilwa and Sofala, facilitated these trade links.
The Great Zimbabwe state (circa 1100–1450 CE) became a major centre of gold trade, linking Southern Africa with the broader Indian Ocean world.
Gold, ivory and cattle were exchanged for luxurious items, thus integrating Southern Africa into the global trade networks.
3. The Mfecane (1815–1840)
A series of forced migrations and conflicts had roots in the competition for land and resources that began in the 18th century and exemplifies the Southern African interactions.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MFECANE
The word Mfecane is derived from the Nguni language which means; crushing or grinding or the war of wondering. The Sotho called it "Defecane" to mean the same period. It was also called "Lifecane" by other peoples of South Africa.
It was the period of upheavals and population migration which occurred in Zulu land in South Africa in the 19th century, 1800–1830s. It took place among the eastern Bantu tribes such as the Ngwane under Sobhuza, Mthethwa under Dingiswayo, Ndwandwe under Zwide, and minor group of the Zulu clan under Senzangakona.
The rise of Mfecane among such groups happened when the groups started to conquer each other.
CAUSES OF THE MFECANE
i. Increase of Population
This was the main internal factor that led to Mfecane. In Nguniland, population rapidly expanded that it outmatched the available resources.
As land became inadequate for farming and pasture, the demand for land raised conflicts that forced Nguni tribes to adopt regular armies to fight for more land, thus Mfecane.
ii. The Struggle to Control Trade with the Delagoa Bay
From the late 18th C, European maritime traders at the Delagoa Bay were trading with African societies like the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and Zulu.
The struggles to control the trade and acquire items like slaves, ivory and gold needed by maritime traders led to conflicts among the chiefdoms.
iii. The Boers Expansion Northwards
The Boer Trek in the interior intensified the severity of Mfecane.
With their determination to control any fertile land in the interior, the Boers fought African tribes including the Zulu, Nguni, Xhosa and Kumalo.
The wars caused a lot suffering as tribes started fighting each other for the little land left.
iv. Rise of Zulu – Tshaka
This contributed to the development of Mfecane. He was a powerful leader with strong army, which used short stabbing spears to fight the other clans by defeating and absorbing them into his chiefdom.
v. Territorial Expansion
This made various clans wage the wars among themselves. Each clan desired to expand boundaries in order to make a larger territory.
vi. The Great Pride in Military Skills of Nguni Tribal Leaders
The Nguni tribal leaders like Zwide of the Ndwandwe and Shaka of the Zulu fought each other to control the region by forcefully incorporating their neighbours into their hegemony.
vii. Deadly Cattle Raiding Acts
The Nguni adopted lethal cattle raiding activities against each other to expand their herds.
As herds expanded, communities competed for more grazing lands.
The two; cattle raiding and need for more pastureland resulted in endless conflicts which ultimately led to Mfecane.
viii. Transformation from Communal to Feudal System
Emergence of classes gave way to the rise of strong landlords – tribal leaders who were itching to consolidate power by acquiring more land.
This settled the Nguni into small but rival chiefdoms such as Ngwane, Mthethwa, Zulu and Ndwandwe which contested for control of land in the region.
ix. Attacks by the Griquas
Since the early 19th C, coloured people from the Cape Colony, known as Griquas, were a source of instability among the southern Bantu communities.
Using horses and firearms, the Griquas from time to time attacked the Nguni societies like the Sotho and captured women and children whom they sold as slaves to the Boers and British farmers.
EFFECTS OF THE MFECANE
Mfecane was indeed one of the notable 19th C African revolutions that have far reaching effects that touched a vast region of South, Central and East Africa.
However much it brought havoc, it also brought considerable military, political and social development.
The effects include:
i. Massive Depopulation
Large parts of southern Africa, namely the regions of Natal, Orange Free and Transvaal states, were largely depopulated.
Some societies were annihilated as thousands were massacred and more forced to flee from the constant tribal wars.
ii. The Spread of Zulu Military Techniques
The spread of Zulu military techniques to the same areas.
For example, many societies in East and Central Africa adopted the Ngoni's weapons such as short stabbing spears and long shields.
They also adopted fighting techniques such as the use of cow-horn formation when confronting enemies.
iii. Growth and Consolidation of Large States
It led to the growth and consolidation of large states in Central and East Africa.
As the Ngoni moved northwards, they destroyed states such as Rozwi in Zimbabwe, Lozi in Zambia, and Undi in Malawi.
The Ngoni set up multi-ethnic states of different sizes.
They included the Ndebele State in Zimbabwe, the Shangani State in present-day Mozambique and various Ngoni states in present-day Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.
iv. Depopulation in Natal
The number of people decreased in larger areas such as the Veld.
They died during the wars while others flew from the region and concentrated themselves in other regions, which could be defended from frequent attacks by Shaka soldiers.
v. Separation of Bantu Tribes
Mfecane forced migrations of several Nguni tribes from southern Africa.
The migrating tribes like the Ngoni and Ndebele also invaded societies they came across, forcing them out.
This chain of reaction led to continuous trouble and migrations that redistributed Bantu tribes in South, Central and East Africa.
vi. Emergence of Powerful Military Leaders
The severity of tribal wars led to the rise of strong military leaders who emerged to defend their tribes.
The leaders included Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the Ndebele and Moshoeshoe of the Basulo.
vii. The Fall of Peace in Many Societies
Neighbouring South Africa existed due to Mfecane.
Many groups which moved away from Natal conquered local people on their way and disturbed peace.
Zwangendaba fought the Shona of Mwenemutapa in the movement to the North and disorganized the people in Eastern Africa, especially in the West and South of Tanganyika.
viii. Settlement of the Boers
Mfecane helped the Boers to settle in large areas of Natal and the Veld because many people had left the areas when the Boer Trek started in the 1830s.
The Boer settlers were able to take over land which was left unoccupied as a result of Mfecane in Natal.
ix. Military Transformation
The intensification of tribal wars forced the Bantu tribes to have a military outlook that they never had before.
Certainly, southern Africa became a home of military innovation.
For instance, Shaka, the notable military innovator, introduced new weapons, the Assegai (short stabbing spear) and new tactics like the age-regiment system and cow-horn military strategy.
Such inventions were previously unknown in local warfare.
x. Death of Shaka Zulu
Shaka was murdered by his own brothers Dingane and Mhlangane on 14th December 1828 with the help of Mbhopa, Shaka's Induna.
Shaka was killed because of his brutality, especially after the death of his mother Nandi.
xi. Ngoni Migration
Mfecane resulted into the migration of Nguni-speaking people to Central and East Africa.
These people were called the Ngoni in Tanzania, Zambia and Malawi; the Matebele in Zimbabwe; and the Kololo in South-eastern Zambia.
NGONI MIGRATION
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa.
They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide's leadership.
Ngoni migration was the movement of the Ngoni people from Natal in South Africa to Central and East Africa.
Their migrations started in the 1820s as a result of the Mfecane wars.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE NGONI IN TANZANIA (TANGANYIKA)
The Nguni-speaking people moved out of the Natal region in South Africa in different groups and went to different areas under different leaders.
For example, Shoshangane led his group north-eastwards to Mozambique.
Moshoeshoe and his people went to the present-day Botswana.
Sebituane and his group moved into the present-day Zambia and Mzilikazi and his people settled in Zimbabwe.
The Ngoni who came to Tanzania were in two groups. The first group was under the leadership of Zwangendaba and the second one under the leadership of Mputa Mseko.
A. THE NGONI UNDER ZWANGENDABA
Zwangendaba led the first group of Jere-Nguni speakers.
He left the Natal region in the 1820s, after he had gathered some followers.
Zwangendaba and his people crossed the River Zambezi in 1835.
This group arrived and settled for some time in Ufipa in about 1840.
Zwangendaba died in 1845.
After his death, his followers split into five subgroups.
The groups were the Tuta, Gwangwara, Mpenzane, Mombera and Ciwere.
Two of these groups, the Gwangwara and Tuta, remained in Tanzania and the rest moved into and settled in Malawi and Zambia.
The Tuta Group
From Ufipa, the Tuta under Mpangalala moved northwards to the area called Shinyanga region at present.
Along the way they raided and defeated the Holoholo people, who shortly reorganised themselves and defeated the Tuta.
From this time onwards, the Tuta fought many other wars in north-western Tanzania and eventually settled in the Runzewe area of present-day Kahama District in Tanzania.
The Gwangwara Group
The Gwangwara group, led first by Zulu Gama and later by Mbonani, moved southeastwards from Ufipa to Songea District.
Before settling permanently in Songea, the Gwangwara clashed with the Hehe.
The clashes gave the Hehe a chance to reorganize into a more centralized society under Chief Munyigumba in the late 1860s and early 1870s.
B. THE NGONI UNDER MPUTA MASEKO / THE MASEKO NGONI
The second group of the Ngoni was led by Mputa Maseko; they were known as the Maseko Nguni-speaking people.
They came from the Natal region via Malawi and settled in Songea in the 1840s.
They were later invaded by the Gwangwara, who arrived there in the 1860s.
The two groups fought a war.
Maseko and his men were defeated and went to settle in northern Malawi.
Some of his followers moved to the north of Songea and settled permanently in Ulanga-Kilombero.
They came to be known as the Mbunga.
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