Form Six History: Cold War Politics and the Arms Race
Form Six History: Cold War Politics and the Arms Race
Introduction
The Cold War (1947–1991) was one of the major political developments of the second half of the twentieth century. It involved intense rivalry between the United States of America (USA) and the Soviet Union (USSR), the two dominant superpowers after the Second World War.
Although the two powers did not fight one another directly in a full-scale war, they competed through ideological rivalry, military alliances, nuclear weapons development, propaganda, economic programmes, espionage and proxy conflicts in different parts of the world.
The Cold War had a significant impact on Africa, including Tanzania. It influenced the process of decolonisation, political developments after independence and conflicts in several African countries. The Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) is one example in which the USA and Soviet Union supported opposing sides.
This chapter examines the origins and development of the Cold War, the arms race, major Cold War crises, proxy wars, attempts to reduce tensions and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
1.1 Definition and Nature of the Cold War
Meaning of the Cold War
The Cold War refers to the prolonged political, ideological, economic and military rivalry between the USA and its Western allies and the Soviet Union together with its Eastern European allies. It lasted approximately from 1947 to 1991.
It was described as a “cold” war because the USA and USSR avoided direct large-scale military confrontation with each other. The danger of nuclear destruction made direct war extremely risky.
Instead, the rivalry appeared through:
- Proxy wars
- Propaganda
- Espionage
- Economic competition
- Nuclear and conventional arms races
- Competition for political influence
- Support for opposing groups in newly independent countries
Major Cold War Blocs
The Cold War divided much of the world into competing political blocs.
The Western or Capitalist Bloc
This bloc was led by the United States. It included Western European countries associated with NATO, Japan, South Korea and other American allies.
The bloc generally promoted:
- Capitalism
- Liberal democracy
- Free-market economic systems
The Eastern or Communist Bloc
The Soviet Union led this bloc. It included several Eastern European socialist states associated with the Warsaw Pact, together with other communist countries.
Its political and economic systems were based largely on:
- Marxism-Leninism
- One-party political systems
- State-controlled economies
The Non-Aligned Movement
Many newly independent countries in Africa and Asia attempted to avoid joining either major Cold War bloc.
Important leaders associated with the movement included Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt.
Tanzania became an important member of the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking to maintain an independent foreign policy.
1.3 Causes of the Cold War
The Cold War emerged from several historical developments rather than from one particular event.
(a) Ideological Differences
One of the fundamental causes was the conflict between capitalism and communism.
The United States viewed communism as a threat to individual freedoms, democratic government and free-market economies. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, regarded capitalism as an exploitative system that disadvantaged workers.
Both systems sought to expand their influence internationally.
These differences existed even before the Second World War. The Russian Revolution of 1917 increased tensions between communist Russia and capitalist countries. Western powers, including the USA, Britain, France and Japan, intervened on the side of anti-communist forces during the Russian Civil War.
This experience contributed to Soviet suspicion of Western intentions.
(b) The Second World War and the Breakdown of Trust
The USA and Soviet Union cooperated during the Second World War mainly because they shared a common enemy in Nazi Germany. Once Germany was defeated, their underlying political disagreements became increasingly visible.
Several developments contributed to the breakdown of their wartime relationship.
The Second Front
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin repeatedly requested that Britain and the USA establish a second front in Western Europe to reduce pressure on Soviet forces fighting Germany.
The Western Allies eventually opened the second front through D-Day in June 1944. Stalin nevertheless remained suspicious of the delay.
The Atomic Bomb
At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, President Harry Truman informed Stalin that the USA possessed a powerful new weapon.
The United States did not share the technology with the Soviet Union. This contributed to Soviet fears and encouraged the USSR to accelerate its own nuclear weapons programme.
Potsdam Conference Disagreements
The meeting involving Truman, Stalin and Churchill/Attlee revealed major disagreements over the future of Europe.
Important disputes concerned:
- The administration of post-war Germany
- Soviet influence in Eastern Europe
- Reparations
- The political future of European countries
(c) Soviet Expansion in Eastern Europe
As Soviet forces moved through Eastern Europe during 1944–1945, communist-friendly governments were established in countries such as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, as well as in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany.
The USA and Britain interpreted this development as Soviet expansionism.
The Soviet Union, however, regarded control over Eastern Europe as necessary for its security because Russia had previously been invaded through this region during both World Wars.
(d) The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the major Allied leaders agreed on several principles concerning post-war Europe.
Among the arrangements were:
- Holding free elections in liberated European countries.
- Establishing an international organisation for collective security.
- Dividing Germany into occupation zones.
- Soviet participation in the war against Japan.
However, disagreement later emerged over the interpretation and implementation of these agreements.
The Soviet government did not permit the type of free political competition expected by Western governments in Eastern Europe. The Western powers viewed this as a violation of wartime agreements, while the Soviet leadership considered friendly governments along its borders essential for national security.
(e) Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy
In 1947, President Harry S. Truman introduced the Truman Doctrine.
The policy committed the United States to providing political, military and economic assistance to countries threatened by communist expansion or Soviet-supported pressure.
The immediate situation involved Greece and Turkey.
The broader policy became known as containment, whose objective was to prevent communism from spreading into additional countries.
(f) Berlin Blockade, 1948–1949
The Berlin Blockade was one of the earliest major confrontations of the Cold War.
In June 1948, the Soviet Union restricted road, railway and canal access to West Berlin, which was located within the Soviet-controlled part of Germany.
The Western Allies responded with the Berlin Airlift, transporting essential supplies such as food, fuel and medicine by air.
The airlift continued for about eleven months and eventually succeeded. The Soviet blockade was lifted in May 1949.
The crisis intensified the division between the Western powers and the Soviet Union.
(g) Communist Victory in China and the Korean War
In October 1949, the Communist Party under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China after winning the Chinese Civil War.
The event increased American concerns about the international expansion of communism.
The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 further strengthened American support for a more active containment policy.
(h) Soviet Development of the Atomic Bomb
In August 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb.
This ended the American monopoly over nuclear weapons and intensified the Cold War arms race.
Both superpowers increasingly developed nuclear capabilities, creating a situation in which each possessed the ability to inflict enormous destruction on the other.
2.1 The Truman Doctrine (1947)
The Truman Doctrine, announced on 12 March 1947, became an important foundation of American Cold War foreign policy.
Its main principle was that the United States should assist countries resisting communist pressure or subversion.
The policy was initially associated with American support for Greece and Turkey. It marked a major shift away from traditional American isolationism and towards greater international involvement.
Significance of the Truman Doctrine
The doctrine:
- Strengthened the American policy of containment.
- Increased US involvement in international affairs.
- Supported governments threatened by communist movements.
- Strengthened the Western capitalist bloc.
- Became an important foundation of subsequent American Cold War policy.
2.2 The Marshall Plan (1947)
The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program, was an American economic programme announced by US Secretary of State George Marshall in June 1947.
Its main objective was to assist in the economic reconstruction of European countries devastated by the Second World War.
From 1948 to 1952, substantial American financial assistance was provided to participating Western European countries.
Objectives of the Marshall Plan
The programme aimed to:
- Rebuild European economies.
- Promote political and economic stability.
- Reduce the possibility of economic hardship encouraging support for communism.
- Create stronger markets for American exports.
- Strengthen Western Europe against Soviet influence.
The Soviet Union rejected participation and encouraged Eastern European countries to do the same. It promoted its own economic cooperation arrangements, including COMECON.
The Marshall Plan contributed significantly to Western European economic recovery and strengthened the Western bloc.
2.3 NATO and the Warsaw Pact
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established on 4 April 1949 by twelve founding members, including the USA, Canada, Britain, France and several Western European countries.
Its central principle was collective defence: an armed attack against one member could be treated as an attack against all.
NATO created a coordinated military structure under Western leadership and became a major military alliance of the Cold War.
The Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 following West Germany's admission to NATO.
It brought together the Soviet Union and several Eastern European socialist states, including:
- Poland
- East Germany
- Czechoslovakia
- Hungary
- Romania
- Bulgaria
- Albania
Like NATO, the alliance was based on mutual defence. However, the Soviet Union exercised dominant influence over the Warsaw Pact and maintained military forces in member countries.
2.4 The Berlin Crisis and the Iron Curtain
Berlin became one of the clearest symbols of the political division created by the Cold War.
Although Berlin was situated inside Soviet-controlled East Germany, the city itself was divided among the four occupation powers:
- United States
- Britain
- France
- Soviet Union
The higher standard of living visible in West Berlin compared with East Berlin contributed to tensions within the Soviet bloc.
Thousands of East Germans moved to the West through Berlin, creating a serious loss of skilled workers and contributing to economic difficulties in East Germany.
The Berlin Wall – 13 August 1961
With Soviet approval, East Germany constructed the Berlin Wall in August 1961.
The wall physically separated East Berlin from West Berlin and became a powerful symbol of the division between the communist and capitalist worlds.
It remained in place until 1989.
Kennedy's Visit to Berlin – 1963
In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin and delivered a famous speech expressing Western solidarity with the people of Berlin.
His visit demonstrated continued American commitment to West Berlin during the Cold War.
Fall of the Berlin Wall – 9 November 1989
The Berlin Wall fell on 9 November 1989.
Its collapse became one of the most important symbols of the weakening of communist rule in Eastern Europe and the approaching end of the Cold War.
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